Clean and safe drinking water is not only prerequisite for good health but also a fundamental human right. There are many regions in the world that have limited water supply. The continuous supply of water will be more restrictive in the coming century because of urbanisation, population growth and climate change¹. The "modern infrastructural ideal" has been undermined by the fact that many cities have experienced quicker population and area growth than their infrastructure systems². One of the World Health Organization's strategies is to ensure that the public has access to safe drinking water³. In fact, Sustainable Development Goal 6 primarily deals with Clean Water and Sanitation. It draws attention towards the importance of safe drinking water and sanitation globally. Members of the community are the chief recipients of clean and safe water.

Moreover, they are the first one to bear the brunt of its declining quality when it is identified or suspected that water is unsuitable for human consumption because of lack of assistance or regulatory issues⁴. The term "drinking water quality" signifies the relationship between the natural processes and human actions which influence the composition of water. Leaks and cross-connections permit contaminants to pass through the water supply system, deteriorating the quality of the drinking wate⁵. It results in the outbreak of many diseases like jaundice, diarrhoea etc. Hence, clean and safe drinking water is of utmost importance.

The present study attempts to analyse the drinking water service in Shimla city. Shimla city, capital of Himachal Pradesh, is a beautiful city and a famous international tourist destination. There is huge influx of people in the city owing to employment opportunities, health and educational facilities to name a few. However, the city often faces the problem of water scarcity. The major reason behind this is rapidly growing population and haphazard construction on the other. There are only five major sources of water supply in Shimla city. They are Gumma, Giri, Churat, Chaide, Ashwini Khad sources⁶. However, limited water supply, growing population and changing climate has been the major reason behind the problem of water scarcity in the city. Though government authorities are trying their best to cope with demand and supply gap but somehow every year residents faces the problem of water scarcity. Since, the residents are the first one to deal with the water crisis situation, hence the present study tries to analyse the drinking water service in Shimla city through people’s perception on various aspects related to it.

OBJECTIVES:

The objectives of the study are

· To study various aspects related to drinking water service in Shimla city.

· To examine the frequency of water supply in context of adequacy of the quantity received in Shimla City.

· To examine the hours of water supply with respect to satisfaction from water service in Shimla city.

HYPOTHESES:

The hypothesis created for testing are as follows:

H₁: There is no association between frequency of water supply with adequacy of quantity received.

H₂: There is no association between hours of water supply and satisfaction from drinking water service in Shimla city.

MATERIAL AND METHODS:

The study is purely based on primary sources of data. Two hundred samples were collected using interview schedules in two wards namely Lower Bazaar and Chotta Shimla using purposive sampling method. The two wards were having the highest and lowest number of households as per Census, 2011. Interview schedules contained questions related to various aspects of drinking water service in Shimla city. After the collection of data, it was analysed and interpreted using SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences). Two hypotheses were created and tested using Chi-square test. Descriptive statistics has also been studied using simple likert and percentage method. The results have been represented using suitable tables and figures. The methodology of the flow chart has been presented in Figure 1.1.

STUDY AREA:

Shimla city, the capital of Himachal Pradesh was once the summer capital of British in India. Shimla city has pleasant and mild climate throughout the year and its natural beauty is profound. The city has beautiful hills accompanied with the structures made during colonial years⁷. Along with this, there are many naturally beautiful places which adds to tourism in the state. Being the capital of the state, the city is also administrative hub for various activities. Initially the city was planned for 25000 people by Britishers but at present, there are more than 2 lakh 40 thousand people living here⁹. Figure 1.2 presents the location map of study area.

Figure 1.1

Figure 1.2

DISCUSSION AND RESULTS:

Shimla city, capital of Himachal Pradesh has large influx of people owing to various purposes. For instance, education, health facilities, employment opportunities. Being a famous tourist destination and administration hub, the city acts as foci point for various activities. Being a hilly region, city has limited sources of water and every year, now and then, often the problem of water scarcity arises, specifically during summer season. Water scarcity of 2018, when government had to even request the tourists to not come to Shimla, owing to water scarcity was alarming¹⁰. The outbreak of Jaundice in 2015, because of the contamination of Ashwini Khad is not new⁸. Hence, the present study tries to analyse the drinking water service in Shimla city. The study focuses on the residents of Shimla city as they are the first one to face the brunt of drinking water scarcity.

Proportion of Male-Female Respondents and Period of stay of the local residents in the study area

Table 1.1 shows the proportion of male and female respondents and it clearly depicts that females outnumber males as most of the females are housewives and were available at home when the data was collected.

Table 1.1 Male-Female Respondents of the Study

No. of Male Respondents	47
Percentage of Male Respondent	23.5
No. of Female Respondents	153
Percentage of Male Respondent	76.5

Source: Data collected from field survey (2023)

Table 1.2 Period of Stay in the Area

Period of Stay	Total	Percentage of the total respondents
Less than 10 years	69	34.5
Less than 20 years	21	10.5
More than 20 years	50	25
Since Birth	60	30

Source: Data collected from field survey (2023)

The period of stay of the respondents has also been analysed as depicted in table 1.2. Majority of the people (34.5%) are living in the area for less than 10 years. However, (30%) of the people are living in the area since birth and comprise of mainly the property holders. The respondents who have been living in the study area for more than 20 years (25%) comprise of the respondents who have come to Shimla to work but have settled down with their own properties in due course of time but are not native to the place. It has been found that 100 percent of the people get drinking water from the piped water connections provided by Municipal Corporation (MC), Shimla.

Perception of people on water supply in various seasons

Table 1.3 shows the perception of people on water supply in various seasons. Respondents were asked to check multiple options if they feel that water scarcity persist for more than one season. It was tried to analyse that what kind of seasonal effect is noticed considerably by people on water supply.

Table 1.3 Peoples’ perception on water supply in various seasons

Seasonal effect	Total respondents	Percentage to total respondents
Silting in rainy season	63	25.00
Water scarcity in winter due to freezing of pipes	75	29.58
Water scarcity due to presence of less natural resources	23	9.07
Water scarcity due to less rainfall in summers	93	36.29

Source: Data collected from field survey (2023)

The data reveals that majority of people (36.29%) experience water scarcity mostly in summer seasons on account of less rainfall. Along with-it 29.58 percent and 25.04 percent people also says that water scarcity occurs due to freezing of pipes in winter season and silting in rainy season. These are some of the water problems faced by them every year respectively.

Peoples’ Perception on boiling water and using filter

Table 1.4 represents the data whether people boil water or not. It clearly depicts that majority of the people (57%) people boils water before drinking it on regular basis. Furthermore, it was also tried to analysed whether people use water filter in the house or not and the data reveals that majority of the people (89%) drink filtered water on regular basis.

Table 1.4 Perception of people on boiling water

Boil water	Total respondents	Percentage to total respondents	Use water filter	Total respondents	Percentage to total respondents
Yes	114	57	Yes	178	89
No	86	43	No	22	11

Source: Data collected from field survey (2023)

Figure 1.3 shows the percentage of respondents preferring boil water and use of filters. Majority of the respondents prefer use of filters to purify water in Shimla.

Peoples’ Perception on use of Boiled water and Filter

Figure 1.3

Perception of People on water billing

It was tried to analyse whether people pay for water or not and how they pay for it. It was also tried to analyse whether they are satisfied with the bill which they receive or not. Data reveals that 100 percent people pay for water. Also, table 1.5 reveals that majority of the people (74.5%) pay their water bill by fixed amount.

Table 1.5 Peoples’ Perception on paying water bill

Pay through	Total Respondents	Percentage to total respondents
Meter Reading	51	25.5
Fixed Amount	149	74.5

Source: Data collected from field survey (2023)

Testing of Hypothesis

H₁: There is no association between frequency of water supply with adequacy of quantity received.

Table 1.6 depicts the association between frequency of water supply and adequacy of quantity received. Majority of the respondents that is 58.5 affirms that adequate quantity of water is received. Contrary to this, 39.0 percent responded in negative that neither the frequency of water supply is sufficient nor the quantity is adequate. It has been noticed that water is supplied once in three days in Shimla city. Hence, the respondents with big or joint families often face scarcity issues in comparison to households with small families.

Table 1.6 Association between frequency of water supply and adequacy of quantity received

		Adequate Quantity		Chi-Square	P-Value
		Yes	No
Sufficient Frequency of Water Supply	Yes	117 (58.5)	8 (4.0)	148.90	0.00<0.05 (Significant)
	No	5 (2.5)	70 (35.0)
Total		122 (61.0)	78 (39.0)

Source: Compiled by author on the basis of primary data collected from Field Survey, 2023.

Figures in parentheses shows percentage

To test the association between frequency of water supply and adequate quantity received chi square test was use. The Chi-square value obtained is 148.90 and the p value is 0.00 which is less than 0.05. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternate hypothesis is accepted that there is association between frequency of water supply and adequacy of quantity received. More the frequency of water supply, quantity is also adequately received by the respondents.

H₂: There is no association between hours of water supply and satisfaction from drinking water service in Shimla city.

Table 1.7 Association between hours of water supply and satisfaction from Drinking Water Service in Shimla City

		Hours of Water Supply			Chi-Square	P-Value
		Less than 2 hours	2-4 hours	4-6 hours	Chi-Square	P-Value
Satisfaction	Dissatisfied	91 (45.5)	2 (1.0)	0 (0.0)	39.296	0.00<0.05 (Significant)
	Moderately Satisfied	56 (28.0)	24 (12.0)	5 (2.5)
	Highly Satisfied	22 (11.0)	0 (0.0)	0 (0.0)
Total		169 (84.5)	26 (13.0)	5 (2.5)

Source: Compiled by author on the basis of primary data collected from Field Survey, 2023.

Figures in parentheses shows percentage

Table 1.7 presents the association between hours of water supply and satisfaction from drinking water service in Shimla city. It is evident from table 1.7 that majority with 45.5 percent respondents are dissatisfied from the hours of water supply. The water is supplied for less than two hours only. Correspondingly, majority of the respondents that are moderately satisfied (28.0) and highly satisfied (11.0) category have also admitted that the hours of water supply is less than two hours and it should be increased. Respondents who are in highly satisfied category have small families where only one or two persons were staying in Shimla. That’s why they were not so dissatisfied with the hours of water supply. Only 2.5 percent respondents have reported that they are getting water supply of 4-6 hours.

To test the association between hours of water supply and satisfaction from drinking water service, chi-square test was applied. The chi-square value is 39.296 and the p-value is 0.00 which is less than 0.05 and hence, it can be concluded that null hypothesis is rejected and alternate hypothesis is accepted that there is an association between hours of water supply and satisfaction from drinking water service. The more hours of supply are increased, satisfaction will also be increased accordingly.

CONCLUSIONS:

Following inferences have been find out from the study.

· There is an association between frequency of water supply and adequacy of quantity received.

· There is an association between hours of water supply and satisfaction from drinking water service.

POLICY IMPERATIVES

· Though there are many steps taken by the government to fulfil the demand and supply gap of water service in Shimla city like lifting of water from Sutlej River. The pace of such programs should be increased so that it can add to the existing source of drinking water service in Shimla city.

· The residents of Shimla city should also try to save water. They should not misuse the water and take such activities which help in minimising the use of water. For instance, using the waste water of clothing in toilets or promoting sustainable ways of saving water like rain water harvesting.

· The haphazard construction activities carried out in Shimla city should be regulated.

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Received on 01.04.2024 Modified on 15.04.2024

Int. J. Ad. Social Sciences. 2024; 12(2):59-64.

DOI: 10.52711/2454-2679.2024.00011